From Markers to Dynamic Augmentation: Modalities and Outcomes of AR in Language Teaching

Abstract

This review synthesises post-2020 empirical research on augmented reality (AR) in foreign and second-language education to identify prevailing trends, modalities, pedagogical outcomes, and barriers to classroom integration. Following PRISMA-guided selection, 25 peer-reviewed experimental studies with a minimum of 50 participants each were analysed from ERIC and Web of Science. Results indicate that AR is primarily implemented as marker/vision-based experiences but also appears in NFC, location-based, and emerging dynamic-augmentation formats. Across educational stages, AR consistently enhances student motivation, engagement, and positive attitudes toward language learning; evidence for reliable short-term gains in specific linguistic outcomes is mixed, though several studies report improved vocabulary retention and promising applications in phonetics and discipline-specific contexts. Key research foci include general learning effects, vocabulary acquisition, teacher and student perceptions, pedagogical proposals, and methodological innovation such as AR-supported storytelling and CLIL-integrated gamification. Major obstacles to effective adoption are limited teacher digital competence, device and connectivity constraints, potential mobile-device distractions, and heterogeneity in study designs and intervention duration. The review concludes that AR holds pedagogical promise as a multimodal, situated learning tool but requires targeted teacher training, institution-level resourcing, and more rigorous, longitudinal research comparing AR modalities and isolating pedagogical variables. Recommendations include expanding studies on location-based and dynamic augmentation, exploring AR for specific competences (e.g., pronunciation, ESP), and prioritising scalable teacher-development pathways.