International Journal of Law and Politics Studies
The International Journal of Law and Politics Studies (ISSN: 2709-0914) is a monthly, peer-reviewed scholarly journal that aims to provide a platform for academics, researchers, and practitioners to share original research, critical analyses, and innovative perspectives in the fields of law and political science. The journal covers a wide scope, including but not limited to constitutional law, international law, human rights, comparative politics, public policy, governance, and contemporary political issues from global and regional contexts. Its mission is to foster academic dialogue, encourage interdisciplinary approaches, and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in both legal and political studies. The International Journal of Law and Politics Studies is published online only, ensuring broad accessibility and timely dissemination of high-quality research to a worldwide readership.
Al-Kindi Center for Research and Development
Intellectual Property Rights and Expropriation in Investment Arbitration
This article examines the legal meaning of expropriation of foreign investment in international investment law, with specific attention to the distinction between direct, indirect and creeping forms of state interference. The purpose of the research is to clarify how expropriation is understood in doctrine, treaty practice and investment arbitration, and to identify the conditions under which state measures may be treated as lawful or unlawful. The research is based on doctrinal legal analysis, comparative examination of investment treaties, and analysis of selected arbitral awards dealing with expropriation, nationalization, regulatory measures and compensation. The article shows that modern investment law usually treats nationalization and expropriation as related or functionally equivalent concepts, even though doctrinal writings sometimes distinguish them by purpose, scale or legal form. It also demonstrates that the definition of expropriation has moved beyond formal transfer of title and now includes measures which, without open seizure, deprive the investor of control, use or substantial economic benefit. The findings confirm that direct expropriation is generally easier to identify, while indirect and creeping expropriation require a fact-specific assessment of the cumulative effect of state conduct. The article further argues that the legality of expropriation depends on cumulative requirements: public purpose, non-discrimination, due process and compensation. Failure to satisfy even one of these requirements may be sufficient for a tribunal to treat the measure as unlawful. At the same time, the line between compensable expropriation and non-compensable regulation remains difficult, especially where public health, environmental protection, taxation or economic policy are involved. The article concludes that expropriation should be understood not only as an act of state seizure, but also as a legal mechanism through which the balance between state sovereignty and investor protection is tested.
Expropriation; nationalization; foreign investment; indirect expropriation; investment arbitration; compensation
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Advanced Risk Management Frameworks for Retail Traders and Their Legal and Regulatory Implications for Financial Stability in the United States
With the surge of retail trading in the United States, there is an increasing need for sophisticated risk management structures to ensure financial stability and safeguard investors against market volatility, liquidity crises, cyber-attacks, and systemic financial risks. The paper explores advanced risk management practices by retail traders and how they work, covering conventional types of risks, such as market, credit, operational, and liquidity, as well as novel challenges, such as artificial intelligence risks, geopolitical risks, and cybersecurity risks. It examines how financial risk assessment is evolving with the advent of advanced technologies like artificial intelligence, machine learning, blockchain, and big data analytics, providing real-time monitoring, predictive analytics, fraud detection, and optimizing algorithmic trading. The paper also provides an analysis of the compliance frameworks and the impact of key regulatory frameworks, such as Basel III and the Dodd-Frank Act, on institutional resilience. The ethical and operational issues related to AI-driven systems, including algorithmic bias, adversarial systems, and the opacity of deep learning models, are also assessed. The findings suggest that technology-enabled and adaptive risk management frameworks can play a crucial role in enhancing the predictiveness of risk management systems, operational efficiency, and resilience in the market, provided they are well-governed, ethically protected, and properly regulated. In conclusion, the paper emphasizes the importance of advanced risk management frameworks for sustaining the financial system, boosting investor trust, and guaranteeing economic stability in a financial landscape that is becoming more complex and volatile.
Advanced Risk Management Frameworks; Retail Traders; Legal and Regulatory Implications; Financial Stability; United States
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From Courtrooms to Code: Opportunities and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence in Indian Judiciary
The rapid advance of Artificial Intelligence into courtrooms and legal systems has inspired both admiration and anxiety in almost equal measure, which, in legal discourse, is usually a sign that something important is happening. This paper examines the growing role of AI in the Indian judiciary, a system presently carrying a burden of over 50 million pending cases, where justice often moves with deliberation not entirely of its own choosing. It further evaluates the constitutional, legal, and ethical consequences of entrusting judicial functions, even partially, to algorithmic tools that possess remarkable efficiency, though not necessarily wisdom. Drawing upon Indian constitutional principles, comparative jurisprudence from the United States and the European Union, and evolving regulatory instruments such as the EU AI Act, this paper examines four issues of considerable confusion. First, whether algorithmic bias can survive the scrutiny of Articles 14 and 15 of the Constitution, which are not particularly hospitable to discrimination, whether human or digital. Secondly, whether opaque AI systems offend the guarantee of due process under Article 21, especially when decisions emerge from what is politely described as the “black box” and impolitely experienced as one. Thirdly, the paper considers the problem of accountability and the growing necessity of explainability in AI- assisted adjudication, for a system of justice cannot merely pronounce conclusions; it must also reveal the path by which it arrived at them. Finally, it analyses concerns relating to data privacy and evidentiary integrity under the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023. The paper concludes by proposing a tiered, rights- based regulatory framework for the integration of AI into Indian courts, anchored in transparency, non- discrimination, judicial sovereignty, and meaningful human oversight, the last remaining indispensable because constitutional adjudication requires not only analytical precision, but institutional accountability grounded in human judgment.
Artificial Intelligence, Indian Judiciary, Algorithmic Bias, Due Process, EU AI Act, Digital Personal Data Protection Act, Judicial Accountability, SUPACE, Explainability.
Copyright (c) 2026 International Journal of Law and Politics Studies
Legitimacy Construction of Transitional Governance in Syrian Conflict Context
Syria continues to be one of the most complex and deadliest conflicts of the 21st century. The power dynamic in the country changed by the end of 2024, when the Sunni Islamist militant group Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham overthrew the Bashar al-Assad regime. The ‘surprise offensive’ attracted attention from international actors and the media, whose coverage gradually shifted from narratives about the group’s extremist past towards discourses of legitimacy, positioning the group and its leader as the main power in Syria. The research focuses on the legitimacy crisis in Syria’s transitional governance due to the involvement of Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham. It aims to analyse how the media create and frame narratives across different phases of Syria’s transitional governance. The theoretical part is grounded in normative and discursive legitimacy, framing, and agenda-setting theories, employing a qualitative research design. The empirical part applies the Narrative Policy Framework for systematic content analysis of narrative elements such as setting, plot, characters, and the moral of the story. News reports from BBC News and Al Jazeera are coded using Maxqda software. Narrative circulation typology investigates whether international political discourse corresponds to media narratives on Syria’s new governance. Findings suggest, political transition unfolds in four stages: Deadlock, Violent trigger, Initial transition, and Post-Settlement Transition. Media narratives gradually shifted from delegitimizing Assad and associating HTS with terrorism to attempts to legitimize the group. BBC News frames legitimacy as a conditional, reversible process, whereas Al Jazeera frames legitimacy as progressing with governance developments. Overall, findings demonstrate close alignment between media narratives and international political discourse, highlighting the strong connection between media discourse and political strategies.
Burnout Among Healthcare Workers in Government Hospitals
This study investigated the levels of burnout felt by healthcare workers in selected hospitals in Bohol Province to create a plan that answers their burnout-related issues. The researchers used a standardized questionnaire to survey seventy (70) healthcare workers using a descriptive-correlational research design. Three hospitals were chosen for selecting participants: President Carlos P. Garcia Municipal Hospital, Francisco Dagohoy Memorial Hospital, and Garcia Memorial Provincial Hospital. Staff reported moderate burnout, although the most significant signs were emotional exhaustion and mental distancing in high-stress departments like those in Emergency Rooms and in areas for adults. There was no correlation between respondents’ demographics and their degree of burnout. According to the study, healthcare workers found their job meaningful, but continuous stress and exhaustion had a major impact on their well-being. It calls for a total action plan that included stress management, health promotion, training for leaders, and communication improvements. The research adds more knowledge about burnout among healthcare professionals and emphasizes that institutions have a key role in keeping frontline workers mentally healthy. The proposed action plan focused on addressing the causes of burnout.
Burnout, healthcare workers, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, personal accomplishment, stress management, Bohol, Philippines
Demystifying Veiled Narratives of Transactional Same-Sex Sexual Engagement Among Young Adults: Textural and Structural Dimensions
A limited corpus of phenomenological studies has explicitly examined both the textural and structural dimensions of transactional same-sex sexual engagement among young adults. The absence of in-depth qualitative inquiry creates a gap in understanding the essence of participants’ lived experiences, particularly in relation to the formation of meanings, internal processes, and contextual influences that shape their involvement. Thus, this study sought to address this gap by demystifying the veiled narratives surrounding transactional same-sex sexual engagement among young adults with the aim of uncovering the essential structures and textures of their lived experiences. Twenty five participants within the age of 18-24 from the southern part of Negros Island Region were selected through snowball for individual in-depth interview. Results and findings belied poverty as the initial force influencing young adults’ engagement in same-sex sexual activities. Rather, participation in transactional same-sex sexual engagement was found to be developed as a gradual process initiated by a combination of epistemic curiosity and peer influence, which subsequently became internalized as a compulsive tendency for a financially motivated behavior rooted in transactional sexual interactions. Participants articulated cognitive dissonance or conflicting perceptions, recognizing both the benefits and the emotional or social costs associated with their involvement. These included feelings of internal tension, concealment, and occasional stigma, juxtaposed with the perceived autonomy and financial gain derived from such activities. However, feelings of guilt associated with engagement in sexual encounters were gradually diminished through continued participation and repeated exposure. Overall, the participants’ transactional sex encounters reflected a complex interplay of necessity, adaptation, self-perception, and meaning-making within their lived experiences.
Transactional Same-Sex Sexual Engagement
Human Authorship in AI-Assisted Creative Works: A Three-Factor Test for Evaluating Expressive Control
The increasing use of generative Artificial Intelligence in creative production has complicated the determination of human authorship under copyright law. While the United States Copyright Office permits the registration of works containing AI-generated material, the Office currently relies primarily on case-by-case adjudication for such applications, which lacks clear evaluative criteria for determining whether human involvement is sufficient for authorship. This paper argues that a functional test for adjudication is necessary to guide authorship determination. Building on established copyright law and precedents, this paper proposes a functional three-factor test for evaluating human authorship. The proposed test examines expressive control across three stages of creative production: intellectual conception, the generative process, and post-generation modification. By assessing human control over the expressive elements of a work at each stage of creative production, the test provides a structured approach for determining whether the final expressive form of the work can reasonably be attributed to human creative judgment and thereby establish sufficient grounds for human authorship. The proposed framework offers clarity and consistency for copyright adjudication, by providing guidance for better adapting the existing copyright law to the increasing integration of AI technologies in creative production.
Copyright Law, Generative Artificial Intelligence, Human Authorship, Expressive Control
Crisis in Jails: Ramifications of Overcrowding on Inmates’ Quality of Life
Overcrowding in prisons and jails has long been a persistent problem in the Philippines, reflecting similar challenges experienced in many countries around the world. To fill-in the gap in the existing qualitative literatures, this phenomenological study was conducted to uncover the ramifications of jail overcrowding to the inmates` quality of life. This study employed Husserl’s qualitative research design. Using Colaizzi’s method of data analysis, the researchers conducted in-depth interviews with purposively selected fifteen participants. Findings revealed that life inside the overcrowded jail was not only defined by isolated hardships but by a cascading interplay of structural deprivation, where overcrowding, extreme heat, stagnant air, noise, and constant surveillance functioned as the primary forces shaping inmates’ daily realities. These environmental pressures generated compounded physical exhaustion, emotional volatility, and social strain, compelling participants to reorganize everyday life around immediate survival through strict routines, controlled movement, hygiene practices, and conflict avoidance. As pressures persisted, participants developed deliberate emotional self‑regulation which serve as preventive strategies to preserve safety, dignity, and future possibilities. The study concluded that confinement should not be understood solely as deprivation or punishment, but as a complex human experience marked by adaptive resilience, learning, and identity transformation.
Governance Challenges in Delivering Public Health Services to Rohingya Refugee Populations in Bangladesh: A Field-Informed Institutional Analysis
By 2021, the Rohingya refugee crisis in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, had evolved from an acute emergency into a heavily protracted humanitarian situation, a transition severely compounded by the operational challenge of the COVID-19 pandemic. While initial relief efforts successfully averted widespread mortality, the long-term delivery of primary public health services faces increasing constraints from centralized bureaucratic approval mechanisms, institutional fragmentation, and uncoordinated policy execution. Diverging from exclusively theoretical institutional analyses, this paper adopts a field-informed approach to interrogate the epidemiological and health service outcomes associated with these governance gaps. Drawing upon primary observational data and secondary epidemiological trends, including health facility metrics and qualitative field observations conducted during the author's coordination tenure with UNICEF in 2021, this study identifies systemic friction points across maternal and child health, infectious disease surveillance, and the delivery of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) infrastructure. The analysis suggests that the collision between rigid domestic state security architectures and the parallel governance structures of the Inter Sector Coordination Group (ISCG) corresponds with significant reporting latency, parallel data ecosystems, and the unintentional diversion of routine healthcare resources during pandemic surges. The paper concludes with analytically grounded policy options to transition the sector toward decentralized emergency approvals, unified health information data architectures, and ring-fenced financing mechanisms, which are essential for optimizing service delivery in complex, protracted humanitarian emergencies.
Public Health Governance, Rohingya Crisis, Health Outcomes, Service Seeker Detection, COVID-19, Health Information Systems, Humanitarian Policy
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The Concept of Hidden Defects in Sale Contracts: An Analytical Study
The problem addressed by this research lies in attempting to define the legal framework adopted by the Saudi regulator for identifying latent defects in a contract of sale, clarifying their legal nature, and specifying the conditions required for a defect to be considered latent and thus warrant a guarantee. This is achieved through an analytical study that explains the basis upon which liability for such defects is established, and the extent to which it is consistent with the general rules of contracts. The importance of this study lies in its contribution to interpreting the statutory provisions related to the warranty of latent defects and clarifying the criteria for their determination. This benefits researchers and those interested in legal matters, helps regulate the legal understanding of this concept, and provides a clear perspective on the obligations of the parties in a contract of sale in accordance with the Civil Transactions Law.
The Right to Education as a Fundamental Human Right: Legal Gaps and Enforcement Challenges for Rohingya Women and Children in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh
The right to education is universally recognized as a fundamental human right under major international legal instruments, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). Despite these protections, Rohingya women and children living in the refugee camps of Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, continue to face significant barriers to accessing equitable and quality education. This study critically examines the legal, policy, and socio-structural challenges affecting the realization of this right. Employing a qualitative multi-method approach that integrates doctrinal legal analysis with socio-legal inquiry, the research evaluates international human rights obligations, domestic legal frameworks, and the practical realities within refugee camp settings. The findings reveal substantial gaps between Bangladesh’s international commitments and the absence of explicit domestic legal protections for refugees, resulting in weak enforcement mechanisms and limited educational access. The study further identifies key barriers, including policy inconsistencies, inadequate institutional coordination, gender-based discrimination, early marriage, language constraints, and exclusion of children with disabilities. Although community-based and non-formal educational initiatives, such as Home Schools and the Learning Competency Framework and Approach (LCFA), have partially addressed these challenges, their effectiveness remains constrained by limited legal recognition and unsustainable funding structures. The article argues for comprehensive legal reform, stronger policy harmonization, and inclusive, gender-sensitive educational interventions to ensure the effective realization of the right to education for Rohingya women and children.
Right to Education, Rohingya Refugees, Human Rights law, Legal Enforcement
Copyright Governance of User-Generated Content in Generative AI Driven Games
As generative AI becomes embedded in user-generated content (UGC) game ecosystems, creative output increasingly arises from human–AI collaboration rather than purely manual construction. This study examines how the game industry’s “private legislation” reallocates copyright interests in AI-based UGC products, and whether such reallocations conflict with copyright’s incentive-and-balance rationale or become vulnerable in enforceability across jurisdictions. Using a mixed-methods design, the study (i) applies clause-level textual coding to standard-form contracts from eight representative products spanning AI-based UGC games, creation platforms, developer tools, and general tools, and (ii) conducts a comparative analysis of recent U.S. and Chinese judicial approaches to authorship and originality. The results suggest that strict U.S. human-authorship centrism and China’s contribution-sensitive reasoning can yield different validity boundaries for identical platform terms. Finally, the study proposes a modular, tiered rights-recognition mechanism grounded in observable “human contribution” supported by auditable logs and metadata, to improve incentive alignment and compliance in AI-based UGC games.
Sanctions and the Right to Health: Structural and Foreseeable Constraints
This article examines the impact of UN Security Council sanctions on the right to health and attempts to look beyond conventional analyses that focus mainly on the objectives and political legitimacy of sanctions by shifting attention from these concerns toward the actual mechanisms of their impact on fundamental rights. The main issue of this research is the gap between the legal design of sanctions and their practical consequences for access to essential health services and goods. While many sanctions regimes formally exclude humanitarian goods, including medicine, in practice, financial and banking restrictions, coupled with excessive caution by economic actors, cause serious disruptions in the supply chain of medical products and healthcare services. Using a legal-descriptive analysis method and relying on UN documents and case studies, this research shows that the violation of the right to health in the context of sanctions is not merely a random outcome, but a structural, predictable, and legally attributable consequence of the design and operation of sanctions regimes. In particular, the phenomenon of the indirect effects of sanctions, through the transfer of risk to private actors and their reduced willingness to engage with target countries, plays a decisive role in limiting access to health services. The findings of the article show that these effects, although indirect, are attributable to the structure of sanctions from an international law perspective and highlight the need to rethink their design and implementation. Consequently, the article argues that in order to ensure the compatibility of sanctions with human rights obligations, especially in the area of the right to health, it is inevitable to pay attention to their structural and foreseeable consequences.
Economic sanctions, Right to health, Over-compliance, Foreseeability, Due diligence
Artificial Intelligence and the Right to Fair Trial: Emerging Threats
The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into judicial systems has introduced transformative efficiencies in legal processes, including case management, evidence evaluation, and decision support. However, these developments raise significant concerns regarding the protection of the right to a fair trial, a cornerstone of international human rights law. This paper critically examines the emerging threats posed by AI to procedural fairness, focusing on issues of transparency, algorithmic bias, accountability, and judicial independence. Drawing on contemporary scholarship, it argues that the opacity of AI systems undermines the principle of reasoned judgments, while data-driven biases risk reinforcing systemic inequalities (Molbæk-Steensig & Quemy, 2023; Zuiderveen Borgesius, 2020). Furthermore, the diffusion of responsibility between developers and legal institutions complicates accountability frameworks (Katyal, 2019). The study highlights the urgent need for robust regulatory mechanisms, explainable AI models, and sustained human oversight to safeguard fundamental rights. It concludes that without deliberate governance, the deployment of AI in the judiciary may erode trust in legal systems and compromise the integrity of justice.
Artificial Intelligence, Fair Trial Rights, Algorithmic Bias, Explainable AI, Judicial Accountability, Digital Justice
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Testifying Procedures in Saudi Law of Evidence
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has issued several laws in recent years whose texts were previously included under other laws or did not exist as a law in its own. The most important of these systems is the Law of Evidence, which is the subject of our research here, as its texts were included under the Sharia Procedure Law, and it included clarification and detailing of all means of proof. What concerns us here is proof by testimony, as procedures and provisions were established that regulate witness testimony, including a statement of the conditions and impediments to testimony, as well as summoning the witness and giving testimony, discussing the testimony, witness expenses, and all related controls, and then stating the judge’s authority to assess that testimony and whether it is an argument that is sufficient on its own, or an indication that needs what supports and strengthens it.
Law of Evidence, testimony procedures, witness investigation, witness oath, false testimony
Criminal Policy toward Compensation of Victims of crime: A Comparative Study in Contemporary Legal Systems and Islamic Law
This research addresses the criminal policy concerning compensation for crime victims, as one of the modern legal issues aiming to achieve comprehensive criminal justice by balancing the community’s right to punish the offender and the victim’s right to reparation. The study adopts a Doctrinal Legal Research Methodology, relying on legislative texts, judicial precedents, and legal scholarship in both comparative law and Islamic criminal jurisprudence. The first part explores the concept and development of victim compensation, tracing its origins and treatment in contemporary legal systems and Islamic law. The second part examines the scope and methods of compensation, highlighting the diversity among legal systems regarding eligible victims and procedural mechanisms, whether through the offender, the state, or national victim compensation funds. The research concludes that modern criminal justice is incomplete without restoring the victim’s dignity and ensuring full compensation—material and moral alike. It further finds that Islamic criminal law had long recognized this principle through the systems of diyya (blood money) and compensation, offering a balanced model that harmonizes punishment, deterrence, mercy, and reparation. The study recommends incorporating victims’ right to compensation into criminal legislation, establishing national compensation funds, and adopting a criminal policy that integrates restorative justice alongside retributive justice.
victim compensation, criminal policy, reparation, restitution, restorative justice, Islamic criminal law
United Against Exploitation: Lived Experiences of the Inter-Agency Council Against Trafficking (IACAT) Members
This study aimed to explore the work experiences of the Inter-Agency Council Against Trafficking (IACAT) members in Central Visayas Region, Philippines. Specifically, the study seeks answers to the following questions: experiences of the informants in the performance of their functions, cope with the challenges encountered in the performance of their functions, and aspirations of the informants to improve the performance. The researcher adopted transcendental phenomenology which is based on principles identified by Husserl (1931) and was translated into a qualitative method by Moustakas (1994). The study was conducted in the Central Visayas Region of the Philippines which comprises two provinces – Bohol, Cebu, and the highly urbanized cities of Cebu City, Lapu-Lapu City, and Mandaue City. The study engaged a total of twelve (12) informants drawn from key agencies and organizations involved in anti-trafficking efforts. Specifically, two (2) representatives were selected from the Department of Justice (DOJ), two (2) from the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD), four (4) from the Philippine National Police (PNP), two (2) from the Mactan-Cebu International Airport Task Force Against Trafficking (MIATFAT), and two (2) from Bidlisiw Foundation, an non-government organization (NGO), closely collaborating with IACAT. Informants were chosen through purposive sampling, with the primary criterion being at least three (3) years of active participation in anti-trafficking operations or initiatives. Each of the twelve participants was interviewed individually to capture their unique perspectives and experiences. Results revealed that on the experiences of the informants in the performance of their functions, the themes generated were: For Positive Experience: Multifaceted Roles and Adaptive Capacity, Survivor-Centered, Trauma-Informed Practice, Justice and Purpose as Motivational Drivers, Collaborative Networks as Enablers and For Negative Experience: Operational Strain and Systemic Barriers, Emotional Toll and Wellness Gaps. For coping with the challenges encountered in the performance of their functions, the following themes emerged are: Personal Resilience and Self-Management, Collective Strength through Peer Support and Relational Trust, Strengthen Organizational Culture and Professional Sustainability, Navigating Structural and Resource Efforts. For aspirations of the informants to improve the performance, themes developed are: Strengthening the Human Infrastructure, Leadership, Coordination and Collaborative Ecosystem, Prevention, Innovation and Public Engagement. Recommendations urge IACAT and member agencies to adopt context-sensitive reforms that align operational realities with survivor empowerment.
Exploitation, Lived experiences, Inter-Agency Council Against Trafficking (IACAT), Members, Phenomenology, Central Visayas Region, Philippines
Intensity of interference with authors' rights to manage their rights in Slovenian law - aspects of EU law and comparative legal aspects
The Directive 2014/26/EU introduced common rules on the management of CMOs, which strengthen the position of rightholders as members of these organizations and ensure their effective participation in decision-making. Ten years after its adoption, the European Commission is examining whether Member states have successfully implemented it, and its attention has also turned to Slovenia. The Commission emphasizes that the Slovenian legal framework still operates in a paternalistic manner and does not fully recognize authors' exclusive rights to their works, which is contrary to EU law. In this article, we will examine whether Slovenian legislation restricts rightholders more severly in the management of their rights than other Member States. We will explore the different forms of collective management, examine how Slovenian legislation takes them into account. Next, we will consider the copyright legislation in comparative law, in Austria, Germany and Croatia. In assessing the effectiveness of CMOs, this article limits itself to comparative legal aspects, which dictates the use of comparative legal research methods. The purpose of the article is to determine whether the Slovenian copyright law is a special case that warrants greater attention from the European Commission as in other MS. The article will contribute to the interpretation of the relationship between the European Commission and MS in determining infringements in the field of the implementation of EU copyright law.
Copyright, EU law, collective management of copyright and related rights, comparative law, European Commission, infringement procedure
AI in Jordanian Arbitration: Legal Limits and Ethical Safeguards
Artificial intelligence is increasingly used to support legal work and dispute resolution. This doctrinal study evaluates how Jordanian arbitration law can accommodate AI-assisted tools, and where legal and ethical limits must apply to preserve due process, impartiality, and confidentiality. The analysis examines the Jordanian Arbitration Law No. 31 of 2001 (as amended in 2018), the Electronic Transactions Law No. 15 of 2015, and relevant international frameworks, including the UNCITRAL Model Law and the 1958 New York Convention. The study finds that while existing rules can generally accommodate administrative and decision-support uses of AI, Jordanian legislation does not expressly regulate algorithmic decision-making in arbitration, creating gaps around transparency, disclosure, bias management, data governance, and accountability. The article proposes targeted legislative amendments and institutional guidelines to ensure human oversight and procedural safeguards while enabling responsible innovation in arbitration practice in Jordan and the wider Arab region.
Trademark Protection Systems: A Comparative Study of China and Selected Arab Laws
Trademark is considered one of the most prominent and important forms of intellectual property in the international economy. It is not limited to being a symbol for products and services but also serves as a means of communication and connection between producers and consumers in the global market. This article presents a comparative study of the trademark protection system in China and some Arab countries (the United Arab Emirates, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and Jordan). In addition to the historical evolution of trademark laws, it focuses on the similarities and differences in the principles of registration (priority), the scope of trademark protection, registration procedures, mechanisms for the protection of well-known marks, and the penalties imposed for infringement. The significance of this study lies in addressing a noticeable gap in research that brings together the Chinese system with Arab systems. It further serves as an academic guide for advising decision-makers, legal professionals, and companies operating in these rapidly growing markets.
Trademark protection, intellectual property, legal systems, Trademark, comparative study, intellectual property rights.
The Digital Public Square: Analyzing the Dimensions of Students’ Engagement in Online Political Debates
The focus of this research is on the various ways college students in Santiago City, Isabela, Philippines engage with politics online through the “digital public square.” The study used descriptive-correlational research design and specifically examines four ways of engaging politically: latent engagement, follower engagement, expressive engagement, and counter-engagement. The results of the analysis find that latent engagement was the most common way that students participated in politics online since their average score was 2.76; this is compared to 1.64 for counter-engagement and 1.90 for follower engagement. There is a statistically significant positive relationship (r=.235) between latent engagement and expressive engagement, indicating that there is a link between the two types of engagement, and that passive consumption of information is a precursor to expressing oneself publicly. Additionally, there is an even stronger correlation (r=.636) between expressive and counter-engagement, indicating that when people are more vocal about their opinions, they tend to be more aggressive in their online behavior. The regression analysis indicated that active forms of engagement are the primary predictors of digital political followership, based on the R² value of =0.719. Therefore, while students are interested in staying informed about political issues, they often prefer to engage privately due to the negative environment created by highly polarized individuals in the digital public square.
Digital public square, latent engagement, expressive engagement, counter-engagement, spiral of silence
Correcting Mistakes, Redirecting the Future: The Lived Experiences of Public Officers Handling Children in Conflict with the Law (CICL)
This study explored the experiences of public officers handling Children in Conflict with the Law focusing on both the challenges they faced and their aspirations. Using a phenomenological research design, the study aimed to understand the emotional, procedural, and systemic obstacles encountered by professionals such as police officers and social workers in managing CICL cases. Ten key informants, purposively selected for their direct involvement in CICL cases, participated in in-depth interviews. The data were transcribed and analyzed to identify key themes, revealing eight themes that represented the experiences of the participants. Member checking was used to ensure validity, allowing participants to verify the accuracy of the transcriptions. The study identified several positive challenges, happy to serve and contentment through collaboration, participants have also negative challenges such as emotional struggles in work and barriers to effective collaboration, inter-agency cooperation and patience and commitment to serve for addressing the challenges encountered, and for their aspirations the provision for logistic support and security of tenure. This study suggests the need for reforms, including enhanced training for officers, improved collaboration between agencies, and the expansion of restorative justice programs and strengthening community support for CICL is also critical for ensuring successful rehabilitation and reintegration.
Children in Conflict with the Law, Public Officers, Professionals
Non-fault Liability Offences: A Comparative Analysis in the Sudanese and Libyan Laws
This study examines the concept of non-fault liability offences through a comparative analysis of the Sudanese and Libyan legal systems. Employing a doctrinal qualitative legal research methodology, it relies on primary legal sources – including legislative texts and judicial precedents – as well as secondary sources such as scholarly writings and legal commentaries. The research seeks to interpret and critically assess how non-fault liability is addressed legislatively and jurisprudentially within each jurisdiction. The selection of Sudan and Libya is deliberate, as each represents a distinct legal tradition: the Sudanese law is primarily influenced by the common law system, which emphasizes judicial precedents, while the Libyan law follows the continental (civil law) system, grounded in codified statutes. This comparative framework provides insight into how these divergent legal heritages influence the interpretation and application of non-fault liability offences. Furthermore, the study explores the extent of legislative and jurisprudential acceptance of non-fault liability, as well as the specific areas of application of such offences within both legal systems. The research concludes with recommendations aimed at clarifying legislative definitions, ensuring constitutional consistency, and promoting balanced application of non-fault liability in contemporary criminal law.
Non-fault liability, comparative analysis, Sudanese law, Libyan law, legal systems (common law vs. civil law).
Lived Experiences on the PNP Frontline Services and Customer Services
This study explored the implementation the Police Administrative and Operational response rules and regulation; Lived Experiences on the PNP Frontline Services of the and Customer Services. The researcher gets to know the lived experiences of the law enforcer specially those who are assigned as frontline police officer and to know what innovative practices can be proposed base on the findings of this study. The researchers use the qualitative researched specifically the Husserlian descriptive phenomenology method (Christensen et al, 2017) Descriptive phenomenology focuses on the essence of human experiences, or what humans experienced and how they experienced that phenomenon while they were in the state of intentional consciousness. This leads to phenomenological purity. In this study, phenomenological purity was applied with pure phenomenological attitude towards the phenomenon, and any interpretation by the researcher was minimized, again, by the researcher (Lester, 2004), with the least number of perceptions, judgments, biases, or preconceived ideas about the phenomenon, using the epoch, or bracketing, method. It emphasizes the 'pure' description of people's experiences, to the 'interpretation' of such experiences. The experiences of the police front liners and the client’s satisfaction will be treated with objectivity and credibility in the interpretation without biases from the researcher’s perspective. From the 78 significant statements of the participants’ narratives, four themes and six subthemes emerge: Theme 1: I am a Frontline Police Officer (Sub-theme 1: Training and Education); Theme 2: I am a public Servant (Sub-theme 1: Life at risk, Sub-theme 2: Service for Peace, Sub-theme 3: Commitment and Passion); Theme 3: Different Strokes, Different Feelings (Sub-theme 1; Services appreciated and Sub-theme 2: Inhumanities Despised). There are challenges encountered by the frontline police officer while performing their duty such as cases filed against the responding police officer, political influences and obtain injury or killed during the conduct of operation. These are the challenges discovered during the implementation of laws, ordinances, rules and regulations that need to be addressed in attaining the goal of the Philippine National Police towards the peace and order. An Intervention program could be implemented in the different police station in Central Visayas.
Live experience, Frontline Police Officer, Life at risks, Commitment and passion, Services appreciated, and Inhumanities despised.
Enhancing the Role and Impact of Saudi Cultural Attachés Abroad: Evidence-Based Strategies from Leading Global Practices
Saudi cultural attachés play a pivotal role in advancing the Kingdom’s educational diplomacy, cultural relations, and international reputation. As Saudi Arabia expands its global academic engagement in line with Vision 2030, there is an increasing need to modernize the institutional roles, competencies, and operational frameworks governing cultural attaché offices abroad. This study develops an evidence-based policy framework to enhance the effectiveness and strategic impact of Saudi cultural attachés by drawing on leading global practices without adopting a purely comparative approach. Instead, it synthesizes proven models and innovations from the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and China to generate context-specific, actionable strategies tailored to Saudi national priorities. Grounded in theories of cultural diplomacy and soft power, the paper examines how educational exchanges, cultural programming, alumni engagement, language promotion, and institutional partnerships are deployed internationally to foster long-term influence and mutual understanding. The analysis identifies critical operational gaps within current attaché practices, including limited impact measurement, under-utilization of digital diplomacy tools, and insufficient professional specialization. At the same time, it highlights significant opportunities for reform through structured performance indicators, enhanced capacity building, data-driven student services, and stronger collaboration with host-country academic and cultural institutions. The study proposes a coherent strategic framework encompassing governance reform, professional development, digital engagement, and programmatic innovation. Key recommendations include the establishment of a national cultural diplomacy policy, the introduction of measurable performance dashboards, the expansion of leadership and exchange programs, and the launch of Saudi-centric initiatives such as a Global Cultural Exchange Network and a Digital Attaché Hub. Collectively, these reforms aim to reposition Saudi cultural attachés as proactive agents of soft power, capable of delivering measurable educational, cultural, and diplomatic outcomes that strengthen Saudi Arabia’s global standing.
Saudi Arabia, Saudi, cultural attaché, education diplomacy, soft power, Vision 2030, international partnerships, cultural engagement, comparative policy analysis
Beyond Lobbyists: Artificial Intelligence and the Reconfiguration of Informational Power in Parliament
The growing institutional use of artificial intelligence (AI) in parliamentary work raises new questions about lobbying and political influence. Traditional informational models of lobbying explain influence through informational asymmetries between interest groups and legislators, whereby organized actors supply specialized knowledge that public officials cannot easily produce on their own. This article examines how the institutional application of AI within parliaments may reconfigure these asymmetries. Using a conceptual-analytical research design, the study maps five functional areas of AI use in parliamentary work – analytical support, support to the legislative decision-making process, administrative support, support for procedural transparency, and support for communication with the public – drawing primarily on the Inter-Parliamentary Union’s Guidelines for AI in parliaments as a reference institutional framework. These functional capacities are analytically related to the core assumptions of informational lobbying theory. The analysis suggests that institutional AI can strengthen internal parliamentary capacities for information production and processing, thereby reducing structural dependence on external informational intermediaries. At the same time, this reduction of traditional informational asymmetry is accompanied by the emergence of new asymmetries related to technological infrastructure, algorithmic design, and institutional capacity for AI governance. Rather than eliminating political influence, institutional AI reshapes the conditions under which informational mediation and lobbying operate in contemporary legislative processes. The article contributes to the literature by shifting the analytical focus from lobbying actors and tools to the institutional conditions of informational sovereignty in contemporary parliaments.
Bringing Hope, Restoring Lives: Experiences of Former Children in Conflict with the Law (CICL)
The high rate of recidivism among juvenile offenders worldwide highlights the need for effective rehabilitation programs. This study explores the experiences of former child in conflict with the law (CICL) in the Philippines who underwent rehabilitation programs. Through comprehensive purposive sampling, six Children in Conflict with the Law (CICL) from Leyte, three from Southern Leyte, and one from Biliran were interviewed. Using Colaizzi's (1978) descriptive phenomenological data analysis, it found that structured routines and assigned tasks positively impacted personal growth and development. Discipline, responsibility, and accountability were important for rehabilitation. While social isolation and limitations on freedom were challenges, increased chores as restitution promoted accountability and contributed to the rehabilitation environment. Vocational training programs equipped CICL with marketable skills, and personal growth fostered stronger family relationships. This study improves understanding of factors influencing rehabilitation program success and their positive impact on former CICL.
children in conflict with the law, youth rehabilation program, former child offender, juvenile delinquency, youth rehabilation center
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Paradigms and practices in the enforcement of drug law: work narratives of heads of the Philippine National Police Drug Enforcement Unit (PNP-DEU), Cebu City, Philippines
The Drug Enforcement Unit (DEU) plays a crucial role in the local implementation of drug laws. As a specialized unit within local law enforcement agencies, the DEU is equipped with the necessary expertise and resources to investigate drug-related crimes and apprehend drug suspects. The DEU's intimate knowledge of local communities and its ability to build relationships with informants are essential for identifying drug hotspots and disrupting drug trafficking activities. In effectively carrying out its mandate, the DEU helps to reduce the prevalence of drug use and trafficking within its jurisdiction, contributing to the overall drug control efforts in the Philippines. The findings of this study are articulated through eight emergent themes, which describe both the positive and negative experiences of the informants. Positive experiences were represented by themes such as "From Unlawful to Upright" and “From Shadow to Light". Negative experiences were captured by themes like "A Badge of Honor is A Badge of Terror" and "Unseen Forces a Shadow of Horror". The challenges encountered by the informants in the performance of their duties were reflected in themes such as "Facing Challenges in the Legal Process" and "Inter-Agency Cooperation". Finally, aspirations of the informants to improve the enforcement of drug laws were expressed in themes like "Protection for the Guardian" and "Sustained Implementation for a Better Future".The study suggests the Philippine National Police should prioritize investing in state-of-the-art technology for surveillance and intelligence gathering, incorporating a community-centric approach to drug prevention and rehabilitation, and aligning its drug enforcement strategies with the national drug prevention policy.
Criminal Justice, Philippine National Police Drug Enforcement Unit (PNP-DEU), Phenomenological Study, Philippines
The Pitfalls of FIDIC Contracts and How Robust Contract Management Mitigates Them: A Case Study of GCC Mega Projects
This paper examines the common contractual traps encountered within FIDIC forms in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) mega-projects and explores how effective contract management can help alleviate them. Although FIDIC contracts aim to distribute risk transparently and facilitate timely administration, implementation gaps persist, particularly regarding notices, variation management, the engineer's authority, and dispute resolution methods. Based on a qualitative multiple-case study of key projects in GCC infrastructure (above USD 1 billion in value), the study synthesises evidence from contract records, interviews, and additional material to map the most common failures in contract operations. The results point to systemic problems, including a lack of time or quality notices, ambiguous scope management, delays in determination, and the non-use of Dispute Avoidance/Adjudication Boards (DAABs). Nonetheless, projects that adopted formal notices and claims tracking, enabled Engineers to make interim determinations, had digital record-keeping systems, and had standing DAABs showed much better results, with quicker settlements and lower rates of arbitration. The research suggests a FIDIC-consistent Contract Management Framework that integrates transactional, agency, and governance views, along with a playbook applicable across GCC legal and cultural scenarios. The findings contribute to the construction law and governance literature by conceptualising the principles of FIDIC into practical management practices. They emphasise the importance of procedural discipline, transparency, and prior dispute avoidance in delivering mega-projects through contractual balance and delivery certainty.
Dispute Avoidance and Adjudication Boards (DAAB)
The Tao of Teaching and the Criminology Instructor
This is a phenomenological study on the TAO of teaching and the Criminology Instructors. Phenomenological interviewing was used in data gathering to describe the meaning of the phenomenon. This study was conducted in Central Visayas, Philippines where the informants were those Faculty members who have experience in teaching laboratory and non-laboratory courses. These were ten informants who were selected through the convenience sampling. The study utilized an interview Guide to elicit in-depth responses from the informants. In-depth interviews were conducted to arrive at the three-phase data collection needed in the study. The study sought answers to the following: experiences of informants in teaching non-laboratory courses, experiences of the informants in teaching laboratory courses, and views of the informants in their teaching profession. Result revealed that two themes came up on the experiences of informants in teaching non-laboratory courses which are: Pros and Cons: Perks and Privileges in Teaching and it Takes Two to Tango. On the experiences of the informants in teaching laboratory courses there were two themes: Considerations: Perks and privileges in teaching and Student-Teacher responsibility. On the views of the informants in their teaching profession, two (2) themes emerged: Value of Teaching Profession and Noble Profession. It was recommended that teachers handling non-laboratory and laboratory courses in criminology should meet the minimum standards set by the Commission on Higher Education to be more competent in their teaching professions and they must attend seminars and trainings to boost their confidence and the forensic science laboratories, facilities, apparatus & equipment should be upgraded aligned with the CHED Memorandum order to meet the standard and best education to the criminology students as future law enforcer.
Criminology Instructors, Art of teaching, Phenomenological study, Philippines