Connotations of Fewness and Muchness in Arabic: A Semantic and Translational Perspective

This study attempts to explore the reflection of the connotative meanings in the translation of the Arabic lexical items qalil (few or little) and kathir (much or many) and their derivations from Arabic into English and Spanish. In order to conduct the study, some Qur’anic verses containing the two items are chosen, and two translations of the verses, English and Spanish, are select ed to evaluate the portrayal of the connotative meanings of the two items in the translation. The study shows that the verses containing qalil and its derivations hold positive and favorable connotations and overtones, while the verses containing kathir and its derivations hold negative ones. It shows that the translation challenge of the antonymous lexical items qalil and kathir does not lie in their denotative meaning, but rather in the connotative one. It further reveals that lexical items can be concurrently antonymous at the denotative and connotative levels, a semantic fact that should be given enough attention in translation. The study concludes that since literal translation does not convey the various implications of lexical items, exegetic translation is suggested as an appropriate translation strategy to transfer these implications


Introduction
Language inimitability of the Qur'an springs from various language perspectives that include lexicon, structure, cohesion, style, eloquence and rhetoric.To illustrate, some items may have different meanings that cannot be easily and instantly comprehended and grasped as in the case of puns, polysemy, antonyms and auto-antonyms, and invisibility (Al-Kharabsheh and Alazzam 2008); structurally, a verse may have different semantic and pragmatic interpretations, depending on where the reciter pauses (Al-Azzam 2009).In addition, the Qur'anic rhetoric and eloquence are two features of standard Arabic that are heavily employed in the Qur'an.As Abdul-Raof (2006, 1-23) states: "rhetoric is the flesh and blood of the Arabic language.It is a linguistic discipline that aims to sharpen up and upgrade the linguistic competence of writing and speaking.It provides us, as language users, with the appropriate and effective stylistic mechanisms required for eloquently forceful discourse.Thus, Arabic rhetoric makes language meet the communicative needs of the language user (..) the eloquence enables us, as language users, to avoid unacceptability and stylistic oddity at the word level.Eloquence is also concerned with semantically ambiguous lexical items".
Inimitability of the Qur'an includes its style, where an ordinary human being cannot produce its alike.Haroun (1977, 10) confirms that "the uniqueness in style, as seen in the harmony of words and meanings (…) the rhetoric of the Qur'anic style in argument and evidence, suits all levels of perception and intellect" confirming that the style is one of the main causes of the Qur'an's inimitability.The inimitability of the Qur'an also includes its narrative where a story about certain prophets and nations is provided in a divine and a non-imitable way (the people of the cave; the Israelites), among many others.
Lexical items are basically the main source of denotative or referential meaning; further implications of lexical items are gained from the contextual environment.It should be pointed out that the denotative meaning of a lexical item is affected by the linguistic environment of the text.Therefore, readers of the Qur'anic discourse should consider the contextual structure of the text.
In addition to the denotative meaning of lexical items, there are connotative meanings that cannot be measured semantically, pragmatically, socially and culturally.These meanings differ from one person to another and from one society to another and they change over time due to the change of life style and cultural exchange and communication.In other words, the denotative meanings are more stable and do not drastically change over spans of time, while connotative meanings tend to change because of historical, political, economic, ideological and social changes.
As far as translation is concerned, rendering lexical items between languages is not simple, denotatively and connotatively.Translation challenges may emerge or arise due to the causes and reasons mentioned earlier.Lexical items may be synonymous in the sense that they have similar meanings.Synonymy according to Shiyab (2007) "is a kind of semantic relation among words.Technically, it occurs when two or more linguistic forms are used to substitute one another in any context in which their common meaning is not affected denotatively or connotatively".They can also be antonyms in the sense that they hold opposite meanings.Antonyms can be defined as the lexical items that have a semantic relationship between words that have opposite meanings, equivalent to all types of opposition, including contradictories, contraries and gradable antonyms (Lehrer & Lehrer, 1982).In translation, it is not difficult to render the denotative meaning of the synonymous and antonymous lexical items.The translation challenge lies in producing similar connotative meanings of such lexical items in the receptive language.
The main objective of this study is to investigate the translation of the connotative meanings of the Arabic lexical items qalil (few) and kathir (much and many) from Arabic into English and Spanish.To conduct this study, two translations (English and Spanish) of some verses containing the two lexical items are selected, and they are evaluated connotatively with regard to qalil and kathir.Based on the evaluation of preserving the connotative meaning of qalil and kathir, certain translation strategies such as footnoting and explanation are recommended.

Denotative Meaning, Connotative Meaning, and Translation
Denotative meaning represents or stands for the link between a lexical item and an object that it signifies.Lyons (1977, 207) defines the denotation of a lexeme as "the relationship that holds between that lexeme and persons, things, places, properties, processes and activities external to the language-system."Denotative meaning is also termed denotational meaning, denotation, propositional meaning and cognitive meaning (Cruse 1986).It is, therefore, the direct meaning that combines between a lexeme and the entity that it describes or denotes in the real world.As feelings and ideas about a lexeme differ from one person to another, these feelings and ideas are not included in the denotative meaning.
The semantic weight of a lexical item is represented in its denotative, referential, or conventional dimension.Dickens et al (2002,52) define the denotative meaning as ''that type of meaning which is fully supported by ordinary conventions such as the convention that 'window' refers to a particular kind of aperture in a wall of a roof.''They (ibid, 235) add that ''the overall meaning of an expression in context is compounded of the denotative meaning of that expression plus any connotative meanings and contextual nuances that the expression has.'' The denotative meaning depends heavily on its semantics since such a meaning is referential and direct.This viewpoint is supported by Cole (1981), who shows the role of semantics in the formation of the literal meaning of words when quoted as saying: "Semantics is involved in the determination of conventional (or literal) meaning".Denotative meaning of words, phrases, and even sentences is linguistically based and has nothing to do with what people think or how they feel about the linguistic component of that meaning, and this is what is meant by semantics.According to Cox et al. (2021), "The study of linguistic meaning of morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences is called semantics".
Unlike the denotative meaning that is direct, referential and not subject to personal interpretations, connotative meaning is personal and is subject to various interpretations.Leech (1974) differentiates between the denotative meaning and connotative meaning.He maintains that the denotative meaning is the dictionary meaning, while connotative meaning is the meaning that is the suggest by mind and it can be social, affective, reflected, collocative, and thematic, and all such connotative meanings are based on their context.2002) define the connotative meaning as the implicit overtones that a linguistic expression carries over and above its denotative meaning.They add that the overall meaning of an expression is a compound of its literal meaning plus these overtones and its contextual nuances.Therefore, the connotative meaning stems from a word or a phrase or even a sentence, based on certain associations of these linguistic elements.

Dickins at al. (
Denotative meaning and the connotative meaning are connected in one way or another.While the denotative meaning is clear and gains social consensus, the connotative meaning is negotiable and is subject to different interpretations due to many factors like the emotional one, and this affects the evaluation of such a meaning Leech (1981), Larson (1984), Newmark (1981) and Bell (1991).
Connotative meaning represents the communicative power that lexical items are embodied in or empowered within their reference (Leech,1974).Connotations of lexical items differ between synonyms in the same language, let alone when the lexical items are antonymous like the Arabic lexical items qalil (little, few) and kathir (many, much) in the current study.Mismatch at the connotative level between languages results in translation loss.Savory (1957) maintains that lack of mismatch between lexemes results in translation loss, especially in literary translation, as such a translation is an imitation or a recreation of a source language text.

Discussion
This part of the study is concerned with the discussion and analysis of the examples that are selected to conduct this study.The Arabic examples are provided first; they are then followed by the two translations, English and Spanish.After that, a discussion and evaluation of the translations of the examples concerning the connotative meanings of qalil and kathir are provided.For consistency and organization, Ali's English translation is represented by the Roman numeral (I), and Garcia's Spanish translation by the Roman numeral (II).This verse is taken from chapter 11, Hud; it narrates the story of the prophet Noah and his people, when invited to embark on the ark.It shows that Noah and his people were passing through very critical and difficult moments.The prophet was very worried about his people, but they were unfortunately reckless.The verse shows that many of Noah's people refused to embark on the ark to escape the deluge and only very few of them followed his instructions and advice.

Belief versus Disbelief
The Qur'an can lexically, denotatively and connotatively be described as very precise and this precision can be noticed in the consistent employment of its lexical items throughout its whole chapters.In the verse under discussion, the lexical item qalil (few) is associated with positive values or implications as in all positions in the Qur'anic discourse.The two translations have respectively translated ‫قليل‬ as (a few) and (very few).The translations have successfully relayed the denotative meaning of the Arabic lexical item qalil but have not highlighted its pertinent and permanent positive associations such as belief and faith in God as indicated in the current verse.
Religious texts such as the Qur'an require that the translator be equipped enough with their inimitable style.In such divine texts, meanings and implications of lexical items have precise employment that is reflected and portrayed in all their various contexts without discrepancies.This consistency gives the verses certain peculiarities and idiosyncrasies that can pass unnoticed if the reader is not linguistically and semantically gifted and sentient.
In the example under discussion, the Arabic lexical item qalil is associated with highly appreciated and esteemed values from the religious point of view, the most important of which is faith in God.This positive meaning cannot be easily made plain in English or Spanish in the literal translation that contains the lexical item's denotative meaning.To resolve such a semantic connotative problem in translation, exegetic translation is recommended, as this translation explains and elaborates the source text and shades observations provided by the source tex.Not using such a type of translation makes the target text opaque to its readers.

II.
[¡Musulmanes!] Son la mejor nación que haya surgido de la humanidad porque ordenan el bien, prohíben el mal y creen en Dios.Si la Gente del Libro creyera, sería mejor para ellos; algunos de ellos son creyentes, pero la mayoría son desviados.(p.81)Unlike the Arabic lexical item qalil (few), in the previous example, which is associated with auspicious connotations, akthar (most) or its other form kathir (many) in the present example shows and displays negative connotations.This is manifestly observed when a comparison is made between the believers, who follow what is right and abstain to follow what is wrong, and the disbelievers who do not have faith and reject the instructions of God.The verse explicitly states that what is best for the People of the Book is their belief in God, and those people are so few if compared with those who do not believe in God and reject His message (Ibn Kathair, 2000).
In the present example, rendering the associations of the Arabic lexical item kathir (much or many) and its other forms akthar (most) cannot be comprehended or seized by target language readers unless enough exegesis is provided.The lexical item kathir and its derivations in the Qur'an are typically associated with negative connotations.Therefore, rendering them into English denotatively does enable the target language reader to grasp or capture their associated connotative meanings that are typically negative.
The case being so, the translator should support the target text with the semantic implications and allusions that are connected with akthar in the verse.Gist translation, for example, is recommended to portray the semantic context and shades of the ST.The ST should be prioritized over the TT because the meaning is originated in it.Translators normally tend to transmit the surface meaning of the ST, as in the case of the Qur'an translation.This results in translation loss of the semantic components of the ST, and as such gist translation is suggested.Abdul-Raof (2013, 29) justifies such a behavior for the fact that "The provision of literal translation can at times be attributed to negligence on the part of the Qur'an translators who do not refer to Muslim exegetes to check what the accurate underlying Qur'anic meaning is".

Thankfulness versus Denial
Allah has created human beings and has bestowed them with many bounties such as hearing, seeing, and understanding.However, very few people are thankful to Allah Who is cognizant of their nature.The Qur'anic text is rhetorical and eloquent in the sense that the meanings of its words are precisely, consistently, and harmoniously employed.Only readers or reciters enjoying enough semantic and linguistic competence and capability of such a text can realize or seize the exact meaning of Qur'anic lexical items and all their implications, a quality that translators of the Qur'an should have when translating the Qur'an.The Arabic lexical item qalil (few) in the present verse is associated with thankfulness of the believers for Allah's bounties.Literal translation of this lexical item does not reflect qalil's associated meanings in the English and Spanish versions.Thus, capturing the semantic implications and connotations of the Arabic lexical item qalil in the target languages is not without difficulties.The translator should be aware of the semantic and pragmatic features that are alluded with the Arabic lexical item qalil.Thankfulness, as a positive feature linked with qalil in the current verse, cannot be felt or comprehended by readers of the receptive languages.The peculiar and distinct meanings or interpretations that that qalil entails cannot be grasped when this lexical item is translated into other languages such as English and Spanish.To ensure the full comprehension of source language lexical items, the implicit meanings and connotations should be explicitly made in the receptive language.

‫المؤمنون﴾‬
Based on this discussion, semantic and pragmatic translation problems may typically arise when the implicit meanings of the source language are not explicit in the target language.These meanings can be expounded when the target text is provided with sufficient explanatory details.According to Nicholas (1988,78), "the source text (…) has an implicit meaning that may need to be made explicit if its translation is to be understandable in the receptor language".
I. Then will I assault them from before them and behind them, from their right and their left: Nor wilt thou find, in most of them, gratitude (for thy mercies).(p.91 ) II.Los abordaré por delante, por detrás, por la derecha y por la izquierda6 ; encontrarás que la mayoría de ellos no serán agradecidos.(p.152) Contrary to qalil in the previous verse, the lexical item akthar (most) in the current example carries unfavorable undertones.Ingratitude to Allah despite His bounties to man cannot be easily observed in the source text where most people, according to the verse, are unthankful and follow their mundane and worldly wishes and desires after being deceived by the devil.This negative association of akthar is not easily captured by the source text readers, let alone when rendered into different languages such as English and Spanish.The semantic implicitness of the lexical item akthar which is (denial or lack of thankfulness) requires footnoting, explanatory information, or paraphrasing.Such procedures are useful in the translation of connotative meanings as such meanings cannot be always captured.Alhaj (2018) maintains that the connotative meaning of lexical items is normally more powerful than the denotative one and has an emotional association in SL, especially in the Qur'an where the lexical item renders a personal meaning to the reader or a command.In this verse, the Jews ask the prophet about the spirit through which bodies survive.The spirit is considered one of the occults or the unknown issues (Al-Qurtubi, 2006).Naturally, people do not have any knowledge about the spirit, its shape, its nature and the way it functions to keep living species alive.Allah has kept this knowledge hidden from humans and discussion or negotiation about this issue is not permissible.Therefore, it has become a debatable issue between messengers of Allah and the disbelieving people who are invited to faith.Knowledge in different fields is something positive as it enlightens one's life and makes him/her different from animals.

Knowledge versus
Obtaining knowledge is of great value and not many people are equipped with this positive merit.As a quality, knowledge is highly appreciated by Allah and the knowledgeable people and scholars are rewarded high decrees.Human beings are given knowledge; still, all the knowledge they gain remains very little; this littleness of knowledge is so positive and is expressed in qalil in the verse.
Denotatively, the English and the Spanish translations have successfully relayed the meaning of qalil, respectively as a little and pequeña parte (little part).However, the two translations have not uncovered the positive connotations and the favorable allusions of the Arabic lexical item qalil which designate knowledge and awareness that a human being may have.Delving deep into the connotative semantics of such a lexical item and providing the translations with explanatory details in this regard can help in the full comprehension of qalil (few) in the two receptive languages.In such cases, the exegetic translation can be a good solution to resort to by the translator.According to Ilyas (2013, 262) "When connotation is in focus, and it is not possible to find a connotative equivalent in the TL, translators can resort to exegetic translation, or use an explanatory footnote to draw the attention of readers to the connotative differences between the SL and the TL, and highlight the relevant S.L cultural implications".
Completely different from the Arabic lexical item qalil in the above example, which reflects positive connotations of the believers, its antonym akthar (most) here displays that doubters and wrongdoers are too many and as such, they are labeled or connoted by most.They, according to the verse, break covenants they have taken and have disobeyed Allah.
Denotatively, the English and the Spanish translations have accurately rendered akthar as most and mayoría (most).Translating akthar denotatively into the two languages as most is simple since this part of the total meaning is direct and is not subject to many interpretations.The problems of translating lexical items usually arise in dealing with the connotative implications or allusions.Disbelief and transgression are negative associations of akthar in the present example.These negative nuances and overtones cannot be clearly displayed in the two receptive languages unless the translators support the target text with helping details that can uncover the connotations of the lexical under discussion.

Conclusion
This study has investigated the translation of the connotative meanings of the Arabic lexical items qalil few and kathir much or many from the Qur'anic Arabic into English and Spanish.The study has shown that the connotative meanings of the lexical item qalil and its derivations are too often positive and favorable, while the connotative meanings of the lexical item kathir and its derivations are negative and undesirable.The paper has highlighted that the two translations have succeeded in rendering the denotative meaning of the antonymous pair, but they have not managed to explicitly convey their connotative meanings in English and Spanish.In other words, the study has shown that the two translations have not illuminated the strong and the established connection between qalil and its various positive connotations and kathir and its negative connotations.In nutshell, the paper has concluded that exegetic translation, which uncovers the connotations of qalil and kathir, can be a suitable translation strategy.

Study Limitations and Future Research
Although the study has covered an essential semantic issue in translation at the connotative level, it lacks studies that reflect the antonymous connotativer meanings of lexical items that carry opposite meanings.Thus, it may in the future pave the way for researchers to conduct studies that handle the translation of connotative meanings of antonyms, to prove that antonymous lexical items may have opposite meanings at both levels, denotatively and connotatively.
Ye are the best of peoples, evolved for mankind, enjoining what is right, forbidding what is wrong, and believing in Allah.If only the People of the Book had faith, it were best for them: among them are some who have faith, but most of them are perverted transgressors.(p.44) (Armstrong 2005anslation makes explicit what the ST leaves implicit.This specialized type of translation of holy texts explains obscurities and adds commentary details to them(Armstrong 2005).