Do Governance Structures Matter to Service Provision?

This study looks at how different city government structures affect housing assistance and English as a Second Language (ESL) programs. It examines the impact of various governance structures like the Mayor-Council and Council-Manager. The research uses data from surveys of 1,201 local governments in the United States. The results show that cities with a Council-Manager system are more likely to offer ESL and housing assistance. They often work with nonprofit organizations to provide these services. In contrast, municipal governments with a County Commission structure are less involved in ESL and housing assistance. These findings suggest that the way a city is governed has a big impact on public services. This affects how cities are run and their policies. However, the study's method and the fact that only a small percentage responded to the survey are limitations.


Introduction
This study looks at how different city government systems in the U.S. affect services for people learning English and needing housing assistance.It checks if systems like the Mayor-Council and Council-Manager change how these services are given.Researchers asked 1,201 local governments to see how their governance structures shape public services.This is important for making policies and running cities.
Past research has looked at how changing city governments can shape policies for English learning and housing assistance.Lineberry and Fowler (1967) and Welch and Bledsoe (1988) found that cities with reformed governments are better at making plans for these services.They meet the needs of their communities well.But Hayes and Chang (1990) and Deno and Mehay (1987) think the type of city government might not really change how well they provide these services.This suggests that many factors influence public service provision.Schneider and Logan (1982) discovered that counties with reformed governance structures, especially those with a councilmanager system, often have more comprehensive service provision policies than unreformed ones.This indicates a positive link between reformed governance and effective ESL and housing assistance policies (Sayed et al., 2023).Park (2014) supports this, showing that structural reform in county governance correlates with more active policymaking in these areas.Reformed counties demonstrate more dynamic policy development over time (Pavel, 2023).
There is a gap in the literature regarding how reformed governance structures with charter forms affect the policy landscape for ESL and housing assistance compared to unreformed systems.It is also important to explore how centralization in municipal governance relates to policy complexity.Additionally, the role of an elected executive or appointed administrator in municipal governance needs examination, particularly their impact on the innovation, effectiveness, and adoption of ESL and housing assistance policies (Pavel & Pia, 2024).This study aims to fill these gaps by providing empirical evidence on the relationship between municipal governance structures and ESL and housing assistance services.

Unreformed Governance Structures:
Mayor-Council: This is often considered an unreformed structure, especially in its traditional form, where the mayor has significant power, and there may be more potential for patronage and less professional management.
Commission: In this structure, elected commissioners have both legislative and executive functions.It is typically seen as unreformed because it can lead to inefficiencies and a lack of clear accountability.
Town Meeting: A very direct form of democracy where citizens meet annually or semi-annually to make decisions on local issues.While it is participatory, it is not "reformed" in the Progressive sense due to its potential for being unwieldy and not professionally managed.
Representative Town Meeting: A variation of the town meeting, where the community elects representatives to participate in the town meeting on their behalf.It is a step towards reform but still may lack professional management.

Reformed Governance Structures:
Council-Manager: Viewed as a reformed structure, it features a professional manager appointed by an elected council to run the day-to-day operations, emphasizing professional management and nonpartisan decision-making.
County Commission with Manager/Administrator: Similar to the council-manager model for cities, this reformed structure for counties includes a professional manager or administrator who handles daily operations under the policy guidance of an elected commission.
County Council-Elected Executive: Considered reformed, this structure has a separation of powers where the council legislates and an elected executive manages operations, ideally combining professional management with elected accountability.
The "reform" in this context refers to the introduction of professional management, nonpartisan elections, the merit system in hiring, and the separation of political leadership from administrative functions.The goal of such reforms was to create more efficient, transparent, and accountable government structures that would function similarly to a business.The council-manager form, in particular, is the embodiment of the reform movement's ideals, with a focus on separating the political and administrative functions of the government.
Building upon these foundations, the current research extends the exploration of municipal governance structures, focusing on two specific service areas: the provision of ESL and housing assistance services.It delves into how different municipal structuresranging from mayor-council to council-manager systems-affect these services.Furthermore, this study broadens the definition of 'reform' to consider the adoption of a charter form of government and assesses its impact on municipal policies related to ESL and housing assistance.This study aims to identify trends in the delivery of services, contributing a detailed view to the current discussion about the importance of governance structure in determining local policy adoption.This study also contributes to the ongoing debate on the incorporation of democratic values into administration and the politics-administration dichotomy in the pursuit of public administration efficiency.

Theoretical Framework:
Rational Choice Institutionalism theory is based on the idea that people in institutions act rationally.It states that these actors chase their own interests.These interests are pursued within the limits and chances that institutions offer.When looking at municipal governance, this theory implies something specific.It suggests that how governance structures are designed influences policy decisions.These policies are related to ESL (English as a Second Language) and housing assistance services.Officials choose policies that help them gain the most politically and economically.

Hypotheses:
The existing research gap and theory shed light on the following hypotheses: H1: Municipalities with reformed governance structures will have more comprehensive ESL and housing assistance policies.

H2:
The presence of an elected executive or appointed manager in municipal governance is associated with the innovative provision of ESL and housing assistance services.

H3:
The complexity of ESL and housing assistance policies is inversely related to the degree of centralization in municipal governance.
H4: Municipalities with a charter form of governance will allocate a higher proportion of their budget to ESL and housing assistance services than those without.

Research Question and Variables:
The above hypotheses lead to the following research question.
Research Question: "How do municipal governance structures influence the provision of ESL and housing assistance services?"Based on the above research question, the following are the independent and dependent variables for this study.

a. Independent Variable:
Form of Government -This is the categorical variable that includes different types of governance structures such as Mayor-Council, Council-Manager, Commission, etc.

b. Dependent Variable:
Provision of ESL Services and Housing Assistance by Local Government, Nonprofit Organizations, Universities or Schools, and other entities -These are categorical variables as well, indicating whether the ESL services are provided (Yes) or not provided (No) by the respective entities.

Methodology: 5.1 Database
To elucidate the policies, programs, and activities pertaining to immigrant populations within local governments, a comprehensive survey was conducted through a collaborative effort between the International City/County Management Association (ICMA) and Cornell University.The primary focus was to garner insights from chief administrative officers across the United States, targeting municipalities with populations exceeding 10,000 and counties irrespective of population size.
In the spring of 2018, the survey was disseminated, managing to engage a total of 1,201 local governments, which corresponds to an overall response rate of 17%.The results of this survey carry a margin of error of approximately 3%.It is important to note that not every respondent provided answers to all the questions in the survey.

Participants
The study sampled chief administrative officers from municipalities with a population of over 10,000 and counties of all sizes across the United States.

Procedure
The survey inquired about local government policies, programs, and activities related to immigrant populations.Items were designed to elicit information on the presence and scope of ESL and housing assistance services, the municipal governance structures, population sizes, and other relevant factors.

Statistical Analysis
The analysis proceeded in stages:

Descriptive Statistics:
The initial stage involved summarizing the data using descriptive statistics.Frequencies and percentages were computed for categorical variables, such as types of municipal governance structures and the presence of ESL and housing services.Means and standard deviations were calculated for continuous variables, like population size.

Chi-Square Test for Hypothesis Testing:
To test hypotheses like H1 and H2, which propose associations between categorical variables (e.g., the type of governance structure and the provision of services), chi-square tests were used.For instance, H1's assertion that reformed governance structures will have more comprehensive ESL and housing assistance policies were examined by comparing the frequency of service provision across different governance types.

Logistic Regression Analysis:
Logistic regression was employed to predict the likelihood of municipalities providing ESL and housing assistance services based on independent variables, such as governance structure.This analysis helped to assess the effect size of each predictor while controlling for other factors.
For hypothesis H5, which suggests the complexity of policies is inversely related to the degree of centralization, logistic regression allowed for the examination of how the centralization variable influences the odds of having complex ESL and housing policies.
Similarly, for H6, logistic regression helped to determine whether municipalities with a charter form of governance were significantly more likely to allocate a higher proportion of their budget to ESL and housing assistance services.

Data Analysis:
This study examines the distribution of different forms of government and their involvement in providing English as a Second Language (ESL) and housing assistance services.The data reveals the prevalence of various government structures and the extent to which local governments, non-profit organizations, universities, and schools are engaged in offering these crucial services to their communities.Frequency Table 1 presents a detailed view of the distribution of various forms of government and their involvement in providing ESL and housing assistance services.The Council-Manager form of government is the most prevalent among the respondents, representing 39.6% of the local governments.This is followed by the Mayor-Council and County Commission forms, each accounting for 17.0% and 16.9%, respectively.Other forms of government, such as Commissions, Town Meetings, Representative Town Meetings, and County Council-Elected Executives, are less common.

Descriptive Statistics:
In terms of ESL service provision, a significant majority (94.1%) of the local governments do not provide these services directly.Only a small fraction (5.9%) offers ESL services.When it comes to non-profit organizations' involvement, 32.7% of the local governments reported ESL services provided by these entities, whereas 67.3% did not.
Universities or schools play a more active role in providing ESL services, as indicated by 55.4% of the local governments.However, other entities are involved in providing ESL services in only 7.5% of the cases.
Regarding housing assistance services, the direct involvement of local governments is slightly more common but still not widespread, with 26.8% providing these services and 73.2% not doing so.Non-profit organizations are more actively involved in housing assistance, with 40.9% of local governments reporting such services provided by these organizations.In contrast, universities and schools are rarely involved in housing assistance, as indicated by a mere 3.1% of local governments.Other entities contribute to housing assistance in 17.2% of the local governments surveyed.
Overall, the data suggests a limited direct role of local governments in providing ESL and housing assistance services, with a notable reliance on universities, schools, and non-profit organizations for these services, especially in the case of ESL.In Table 3, the p-value is less than 0.001.This indicates a strong association between the type of government and housing assistance availability.The governance structure of a local government greatly affects its likelihood of providing housing assistance.

Association:
Data reveals that certain forms of government are more inclined to offer housing assistance.The Council-Manager form is a prime example.It has the highest number of local governments providing housing assistance.In contrast, forms like the Commission and County Commission are less likely to offer these services.The very low p-value confirms the significance of this difference.This is not a coincidence.There is a clear association between the municipal government type and their provision of housing assistance services.In terms of municipal governance, the Council-Manager form is linked to a higher chance of nonprofits providing ESL services.When looking at each variable on its own, in the univariable analysis, this government form has 66% higher odds (OR = 1.66, p=0.004) of nonprofits offering ESL services compared to the Mayor-Council form.The analysis reveals a complex relationship between local government forms and nonprofit involvement in ESL services.Different government structures vary in their openness to nonprofit service provision.For policymakers and local government leaders, understanding this relationship is crucial.It helps them work effectively with nonprofits.This is especially important in areas needing ESL services.

Logistic Regression:
The analysis shows that certain government forms are more likely to have nonprofit ESL services.However, forms like Commission, Town Meeting, and County Commission are less likely.Specifically, the County Commission form has a significantly lower chance of nonprofit involvement.This may be due to structural or policy limitations.
In the multivariable analysis, another form, County Council-Elected Executive, also shows a lower likelihood.This suggests that these types of governments might not support nonprofit ESL services as much.The reasons could be administrative, policy-related, or related to community engagement.
Overall, the findings highlight the importance of considering government structures.This is vital for building effective community partnerships.It also helps in meeting local educational needs.The regression Table 5 examines the impact of different types of local governments on housing assistance services.It analyzes responses from various governments.Table 5 identifies patterns in their likelihood of providing housing assistance.
One important finding emerges from this analysis.It concerns how the type of government influences housing assistance.In a basic analysis, governments with a Council-Manager form are more likely to provide housing assistance.This is in comparison to those with a Mayor-Council form.However, when other factors are included, this difference becomes less pronounced.This suggests that factors like community demographics or budgets might be more important.These factors could overshadow the type of government.
Another finding relates to governments with a County Commission form.These governments are less likely to offer housing assistance.This is consistent in both simple and complex analyses.It might indicate that their structure or policies limit housing services.
The analysis also covers the County Council-Elected Executive form of government.Here, there is a slight increase in providing housing assistance.However, this increase is not statistically significant.This suggests that these governments, which are elected directly, might be slowly improving in addressing housing needs.
These findings are important for those making policies and running local governments.They show that while the type of government influences services, it's also connected to other factors.For those looking to change or better local governance, it's important to consider these findings.They should view changes in government types as part of a larger strategy to improve services.This is especially true for essential services like housing assistance, where a broad approach is needed, taking into account both the complexities of government structures and other community-specific factors.

Key Findings:
The study found a strong association between the type of municipal government and how ESL and housing assistance services are provided by local governments and nonprofits.Municipalities with a Council-Manager government were often more linked to offering these services.This was especially true for ESL services given by nonprofits.
On the other hand, government forms like the County Commission were usually less likely to provide housing assistance services.This suggests that some types of government might have limits or different priorities in meeting community needs like housing assistance.
These findings support the research's hypotheses.They show that a reformed government structure, like the Council-Manager form, is closely related to providing services such as ESL and Housing Assistance.

Implications:
These findings have important implications for policymakers and local government administrators.They suggest that the choice of governance structure can influence the effectiveness and prevalence of critical community services.
For municipalities seeking to improve or expand their service provision, like ESL and housing assistance offerings, considering adjustments to their governance structures or fostering better collaborations with nonprofit organizations might be beneficial.

Limitations: a. Response Rate and Generalizability:
Only 17% of the targeted group responded to the study.This low response rate might mean the findings don't represent all U.S. municipalities and counties appropriately, especially those of different sizes or demographics.

b. Cross-sectional Design:
The study only looks at data from one point in time.This means it can't show cause-and-effect relationships or how these relationships might change over time.

c. Self-Reported Data:
The study uses data reported by chief administrative officers.This could lead to biases, as the accuracy depends on their views and how much they choose to share.

d. Limited Variables:
The focus is mainly on the type of government.Other important factors like economic conditions, political climate, and community needs aren't considered in depth.

e. Statistical Limitations:
Using Chi-square tests and logistic regression has its limits.Logistic regression can't prove cause and effect, and Chi-square tests only show if there's an association, not how strong it is.

f. Potential for Confounding Variables:
There might be other factors not accounted for that could affect the results.Things like budget limits, policy priorities, or community demands could influence service provision.

g. Interpretation of Odds Ratios:
Understanding odds ratios in logistic regression, especially in complex models, can be tricky.The link between government type and service provision might be more complicated than the odds ratios suggest.

h. Lack of Qualitative Insights:
The study's focus on numbers doesn't capture deeper reasons why some government forms might be better at providing these services.

Conclusion:
The study shows that the relationship between how a city is governed and its ability to provide services like ESL and housing assistance is complex.Some types of government seem better at offering these services.However, many factors influence this, including how well the government works, what policies it focuses on, and the specific needs of the community.
Understanding how the type of government affects service provision is key to making good strategies.These strategies should meet the different needs of communities.As cities change and adapt to new populations and needs, more research in this area can help improve the quality and availability of public services.

Appendix
Chi-square test:

Figure 1 :
Figure 1: Descriptive Statistics on From of Government.

Table 2 : Chi-Square test on ESL Service Provision by Local Govt Dependent Variable: ESL Service Provision by Local Govt
Delving into specific governance structures, the Council-Manager form, represented by 476 local governments, shows a notable inclination towards providing ESL services, with 40 of these governments (or 56.3% of those providing ESL services) actively involved in such programs (Table2).This is in stark contrast to the Mayor-Council and County Commission forms, where only 8 (11.3%) and 2 (2.8%) of the governments, respectively, provide ESL services.Furthermore, the Commission, Town Meeting, and Representative Town Meeting forms demonstrate minimal to no involvement in ESL service provision.All 16 Commission governments, as well as all 5 governments operating under a Representative Town Meeting model, do not offer these services.In contrast, among those with a County Council Manager/Administrator form, a relatively higher proportion (18 governments or 25.4% of those providing services) are engaged in ESL service provision.The County Council-Elected Executive model rarely offers ESL (English as a Second Language) services.Only 1 out of 58 governments in this category provides ESL.This is about 1.4%.There is a p-value of 0.002 linked to these findings.A low p-value like this suggests a strong association between the type of municipal government and ESL service provision.

Table 4 : Logistic Regression on ESL Provision by Nonprofit Dependent variable: ESL provision by Nonprofit
In Table4, the regression table looks at how the type of local government affects the chances of nonprofits providing English as a Second Language (ESL) services.It is important to understand how different government structures might collaborate with nonprofits involved in ESL services in their communities.